Chinese Accounts of Rome, Byzantium and the Middle East, c. 91 B.C.E. - 1643 C.E.
[Hirth Introduction]
It is well known that Zhongguo [China] is fortunate enough to
possess a series of historical works comparing most favorably, in some of its parts, with
the historical literature of any nation in the West. Since the Han, each dynasty has had
its own history, compiled from its court chronicles, or Jih-li, during the succeeding
reigns. The Jih-li, lit. "Daily Chronicles," must be considered the prime source
of all the information contained in these histories. Whether these latter were impartial
in the treatment of historical characters, whether they did not "turn black into
white, or right into wrong, would, of course, depend greatly on the entries made in the
Jih-li; but also upon the neutrality of the historian himself. If the assumption could be
justified that a new dynasty, having by conquest gained the ascendency, regarded the
succumbing dynasty as the enemy of its cause, we might perhaps expect but scant justice
from those who had power over both the Chronicles and the compilers. There is, however, no
ground for this suspicion when a lifetime has elapsed between the period described and
that during which the history was written. One fact only strikes us as being possibly
ascribable to prejudice on the part of historians, and that is, that the last ruler of a
dynasty is generally described as either a very foolish or a very wicked character. Our
present subject is, fortunately, scarcely affected at all by these considerations; and the
less so, as, thanks to the uniform arrangement of these dynastic histories, the
information regarding the various foreign nations with which the Court of Zhongguo had
come into contact has been extracted from the Jih-li and collected separately in special
geographical divisions of the work.
The Erh-Shih-ssu Shih or "Twenty-four Dynastic Histories," contain in all
over 3,000 books, and a European scholar who would think of extracting from them notes on
a subject similar to ours, would find this to be a Herculean labor were it not that the
methodical mind of the Chinese writers had carefully put aside all he wants into special
chapters regarding foreign countries. Thus we find chapters on the Hsiung-nu; on the
South-Western barbarians (Man); on the country of Ta-wan, generally identified with the
present Ferghana, in the Shih-chi of Ssu-ma Ch'ien, whose work opens the series of the
Erh-shih-ssu Shah. Ssu-ma Ch'ien (d. c. 85 B.C.E.) did not attempt to carry his
geographical notes farther than the countries with which Zhongguo had then come into
immediate contact. His successor, Pan Ku, who, with his sister Chao, compiled the
Ch'ien-han-shu [ "History of the Former Han Dynasty,"] and who died 92 C.E., knows considerably more
about the countries of Central and Western Asia. His geographical chapters, of which we
possess a translation, betray the interest which had been taken in geographical enterprise
since the death of Ssu-ma Ch'ien, and which must have naturally been increased in the
author from the fact of his being the elder brother of Pan Ch'ao, the famous military
traveller of that period. Pan Ku may have heard of his brother's expedition to the foreign
territories in Western or Central Asia but he was no longer alive when Pan Ch'ao returned
to Zhongguo in 102 C.E.. This may account for the fact that much of the information for
which the Han must have been indebted to Pan Ch'ao's last expedition found its way into
the Hou-han-shu, or "History of the After Han Dynasty," and not into Pan Ku's
work.
The Hou-han-shu, compiled by Fan Yeh of the earlier Sung Dynasty (420-477 C.E.), is
the first authority which gives us a certain number of details regarding the countries in
the extreme west of Asia. The Hsi-yu-chuan, i.e., "Traditions regarding Western
Countries," then became a regular feature in the dynastic histories, and is found
under this or some similar designation in most of the subsequent Shih.
The Hsi-yu-chuan of the Hou-han-shu contains for the first time a description,
consisting of 589 characters, of the westernmost amongst the countries described in Han
literature previous to the Ming dynasty, the country of Ta-ts'in. In this description we
find quite a number of facts regarding the situation of the country, its boundaries,
capital, people, products, and industries, which would, apart from any collateral
information derived from later histories, have furnished a sufficient basis for the
identification of the country, had not an unfortunate prejudice at once taken possession
of those European sinologues who investigated the subject, for they held to the opinion
that Ta-ts'in, being the most powerful country described in the Far West, must necessarily
be the Roman Etnpire in its full extent, with Rome as its capital. This theory has been
especially defended by Visdelou and de Guignes, and recently by Bretschneider, Edkins, and
von Richthofen. I must confess that I once shared that prejudice, and that when, two years
ago, I commenced to collect the passages relating to this question, I did so for the
purpose of supporting the arguments in favor of Rome and Italy. I soon found, however,
that a close examination of the Han accounts, instead of substantiating my original views,
induced me to abandon them altogether. In these records mention is made of the manufacture
of storax, which has been shown by Hanbury to have been at all times confined to the
Levant; of the use of crystal (glass) and precious stones as architectural ornaments; of
foreign ambassadors being driven by post from the frontier to the capital; of the military
system of the country, which was based on the division of ten and three; of the dangerous
travelling, the roads being infested with tigers and lions, thus compelling wayfarers to
resort to caravans. A consideration of this among other testimony forcibly suggested the
idea that Ta-ts'in was not Rome itself, but one of its eastern provinces.
It is well known that the Nestorian missionaries, whose existence in China during
the 7th and 8th centuries C.E. is witnessed by the celebrated stone inscription found near
the city of Hsi-an-fu in 1625 C.E., declare Ta-ts'in to be their native country, and the
country in which Christ was born. This clearly points to Syria; and on this evidence
several of those who were familiar with the subject have been induced to abandon the idea
of Rome being the country sought for, in favor of Syria or a part of Syria (Judaea,
Palestine). Paravey adopted that view in 1836; so, some twenty years later, did Wylie and
Pauthier. But the reasons assigned by these three sinologues for their opinion rest mainly
on the Nestorian inscription itself. They would not be valid in the eyes of those who
consider this document a forgery, as did Voltaire, and recently Renan, neither of whom
were sinologues, supported by K. F. Neumann and St. Julien, who were, and might have
formed a better opinion on the matter but for their prejudice against those who held the
opposite view. I am personally perfectly satisfied as to the genuineness of this
inscription, and think it superfluous to add any new arguments to those brought forward by
Wylie and Pauthier. What I wish to do, however, is to fill the gap left by those two
writers by collecting such of the arguments in favor of the identity of Ta-ts'in with
Syria as may be derived from ancient and medieval Han historical literature, altogether
apart from the Nestorian inscription.
The prime source of the text of the Hsi-yu-chuan should, like that of the
chronological chapters, been sought for in the daily notes made by the contemporaneous
Court chroniclers. These, like the Tu-ch'a-yuan or Censors of the present
dynasty, were allowed to have their own opinion on the actions of their government, and
enjoyed the additional advantage of not having to openly remonstrate with their monarch,
but keeping their historical records secret. When these were handed to the historian for
publication, the monarchs whose actions were described were no longer alive or in power,
and their family was excluded from government. Neither the Emperor nor any of his
ministers had access to this part of the state archives. Such, at least, was the principle
on which the daily chronicles were based, whatever transgressions of the rule may have
taken place.
The information regarding foreign countries, we must assume, was entered in the
chronicles from depositions made by the various foreigners arriving at the Court
of China. Whether these were in the possession of credentials from their own monarchs, and
if so, whether their credentials were, or could be, properly scrutinized, is an open
question. It appears that the Han Courts were only too much inclined to look upon the
presents brought to the capital as the essential part of a foreign mission, and that
foreigners, especially foreigners coming from distant countries and arriving with
curiosities of a certain value, were readily received as tribute-bearers adding to the
glory of the most powerful empire. The accounts of the countries of Central and Western
Asia contained in the dynastic histories exhibit a certain uniformity inasmuch as certain
classes of geographical facts are represented in them with some regularity. It looks as if
the foreigner, on or before being introduced at Court, was subjected to a kind of
cross-examination, and that a uniform set of questions was addressed to him by means of
one or several interpreters. Thus, if a merchant came from Ceylon to Annam, accompanied by
a Ceylonese interpreter who understood Greek, the trading language of the Indian ports
visited by western merchants, and thence proceeded to Chang-an (or Hsi-an-fu) with an
Annamese who was familiar with the language spoken at Ceylon, and another Annamese who
understood Han, these three interpreters would have been able to mediate at the
examination. The questions asked were perhaps, of the following kind: (1) What is the name
of your country? (2) Where is it situated? (3) How many li does it measure? (4) How many
cities has it? (5) How many dependent states? (6) How is the capital built? (7) How many
inhabitants live in the capital? (8) What are the products of your country? etc., etc.,
and finally, (9) What else can you tell us about your country? This, I presume, is the
origin of the notes in the Jih-li; which we must assume to have been the basis of our
Hsi-yu accounts. The historical writers did not, of course, confine their work to copying
these chronicles. They were men of literary merit and, as masters of the historical style,
had to arrange the facts they found simply stated into a sort of narrative. This involved
that reports derived from other sources should not be despised. Hence the occasional
episode commencing with "yu-yun", "it is said by some that, etc." The
Ta-ts'in account in the Hou-han-shu especially, as I have already suggested, may have been
enlarged by what was then known of the results of Kan Ying's enquiries, who had, in 97
C.E., been sent on a mission to Ta-ts'in by his chief, the general Pan Ch'ao. Kan Ying, it
will be seen hereafter, only reached T'iao-chih [Babylonia], on the coast of the Persian
Gulf,whence a regular traffic by sea was carried on to the Syrian port Aelana, in the Gulf
of Aqaba, at the head of the Red Sea. Kan Ying, who came into immediate contact with the
sailors who were in the habit of making that journey, has certainly had the best
opportunity for collecting information regarding the object of his mission. But apart from
this, it is very likely that at the Court of Parthia which, prior to the Romans taking
possession of Syria again in 38 B.C.E., i.e., just 135 years before Kan Ying's journey,
had ruled over that country for several years, information regarding Ta-ts'in could be
easily obtained. This must have been prominently the case with Ta-ts'in products and
articles of trade which came to Zhongguo [China] through Parthian hands.
The San-kuo-chih, "Memoir of the Three Kingdoms," compiled by Ch'en Shou,
who died 297 C.E., comprises the history of the three contemporaneous states of Wei, Shu,
and Wu. That of Wei contains a meager account of some of the less distant countries, the
incompleteness of which, as that of the whole work, caused the Emperor Wen-ti of the
earlier Sung dynasty to order P'ei Sung-chih to compile a new edition, embodying into
Ch'en Shou's text, which had been written but about 130 years prior to himself, whatever
pertinent notes he could find in other contemporaneous authors. It is to this fact that we
are indebted for the most detailed account we possess of the country of Ta-ts'in. P'ei
Sung-chih's edition was submitted to the Emperor, as the Preface shows, in the sixth year
of his reign, i.e., 429 C.E.. The work from which this geographical account is quoted is
the Wei-lio, i.e., "Abridged History of the Wei Dynasty," by Yu Huan, which must
have been written between the end of the Wei dynasty, i.e. 264 C.E., and the time when
P'ei Sung-chih prepared his commentary, i.e. previous to 429 C.E.. I am not prepared to
say whether this work exists at the present day, but I am inclined to believe that it does
not, and that we must be contented with the extracts given from it in other works. The
catalogue of the Imperial Library at Peking is silent upon the subject, whereas works
compiled during the Ming dynasty, like the Pen-ts'ao-kang-mu, mention the title as that of
one of the authorities consulted, and the Lei-shu, or encyclopedical works, quote under
its name passages (relating to Ta-ts'in, for instance) which deviate somewhat from the
text inserted into P'ei Sung-chih's commentary so as to make me think that another text of
the Wei-lio has existed not too long ago. This assumption is strengthened in so far as Ma
Tuan-lin's account of Ta-ts'in (ch. 339), which is identical with that of the Wei-lio in
numerous details, contains certain extensions in the text, thus suggesting the idea that
either Ma Tuan-lin has had before him a text of the Wei-lio more complete than that quoted
in the San-kuo-chih is at the present day, or that both Ma Tuan-lin and the Wei-lio drew
from one common source anterior to the latter. I have to say that Ma Tuan-lin here, as in
his other geographical accounts, refrains from stating the name of the work from which he
has drawn his information. Such as it is, the enlarged edition of the San-kuo-chih
furnishes information regarding Ta-ts'in which is not only quite as complete, but also
quite as old, as that of the Hsi-yu chapter in the Hou-han-shu. The Wei-lio account
abounds with statements not found in the other standard histories, the authors of which
apparently despised this compilation, if they were at all aware of its existence; and yet,
if we allow for some confusion made in the geography of dependent states, in the
directions of the compass, distances, etc., we find no cause to look at these accounts
with more suspicion than at any of the other early records. Regarding these we cannot
possibly expect greater accuracy in an ancient Han work than we find in an ancient western
authority, say Ptolemy, especially if we consider what monstrous deviations from reality
may be seen in the sketches of India and the whole East in maps as recent even as Edrisi's
(1154 C.E.). The fact of Ma Tuan-lin's text being partly based on either the Wei-lio or
some other text very similar to that of the Wei:lio shows that Han critics of high
reputation did not always follow the example set by court historians.
The next history in the Han standard list is the Chin-shu, compiled by Fang Ch'iao,
who died 648 C.E. Its Ta-ts'in account is mainly a reproduction of what we have learned in
the Hou-han-shu, nor do we find much novel information in the following Shih, the
Sung-shu, which is probably a century older than the former, since its author Shen Yo died
in 513 C.E.. The Nan-ch'i-shu contains a short account of foreign countries which does
not, however, extend as far as Ta-ts'in. The same remark would apply to the Liang-shu,
compiled early during the 7th century C.E., but for a few pertinent notes in a description
of India (Chung T'ien-chu) and a short account of the reception of a merchant from
Ta-ts'in at the court of Sun-ch'tian, the founder of the Wu dynasty, in 226 C.E. I have
searched for further details regarding this traveller in the older History of Wu contained
in the San-kuo-chih, but without result. In going through the minor histories I found the
first account of some value in the Wei-shu, the history of the northern Wei dynasty
(386-359 C.E.). Although this account repeats many of the statements of the Hou-han-shu and the Wei-lio, in
accordance with the Han method observed up to the present day, by which all that was
recognized as true hundreds of years ago must be true for ever, and thus may be quoted
without further scrutiny, there are in it signs of independent information having been
received in China since those earlier accounts were compiled. The history of the same
dynasty (the northern Wei) is the subject of a later work, the Pei-shih, which contains an
almost literal reproduction of what we find in the Wei-shu. Of the histories preceding the
Pei-shih I merely mention the Sui-shu, embracing the period 581-617 C.E., because I found
in it the first trace of the new name under which the country of Ta-ts'in was known
thereafter, viz., Fu-lin. There is no description in this book of either Ta-ts'in or
Fu-lin, but in an account of Persia (ch. 83), I found it stated that "Fu-lin is 4,500
li north-west of that country." The next important account is that of the Ch'iu
T'ang-shu, i.e., the "Old History of the T'ang dynasty," which work was
remodelled during the 11th century and republished under the name Hsin T'ang-shu or
"New History of the T'ang dynasty." The account of Fu-lin---for under this name
we have now to look for the ancient Ta-ts'in---contained in the latter supplements the
former, and vice-versa, although many of the facts stated are identical apart from the
difference in the style of language used in describing them. It may look pedantic to lay
stress on two almost identical reports clothed in different language, but it is, in
reality, quite necessary to make the most out of every Han sentence we can hunt up in
ancient authors relating to one and the same fact. By pursuing this method we not only
glean a number of minor facts which may be contained in one account while being omitted in
the other, but we also succeed in overcoming many of the difficulties of the text. Many
passages would be quite unintelligible to European and Han scholars alike, if we did not
find the key for their correct meaning in parallel sentences conveying the same idea in
different words. The final account in the Twenty-four Shih is that in the Ming Shih. Its
main features are the tenor of a manifesto handed by the Emperor T'ai-tsu to a merchant
from Fu-lin for transmission to his sovereign, and the mention of the first modern
Christian missionary, Matthaeus Ricci, having arrived in China.
I am not aware of many descriptions of either Ta-ts'in or Fu-lin, which may be
considered authorities, having appeared apart from those contained in the twenty-four
dynastic histories. The Nestorian inscription (781 C.E.) contains an account of Ta-ts'in,
drawn up in truly lapidary style; and the various encyclopedical works (Lei-shu)
frequently allude to the country in quotations derived from minor works which are either
lost, or not procurable, or forming part of a Ts'ung-shu or "Collection of
Reprints," such as the Wu-Shih-wai-kuo-chuan, "Account of Foreign Countries at
the Time of Wu,"---3rd century C.E., or the Nan-fang-ts'ao-mu-chuang, a work on the
plants, etc., of southern countries.
Foremost amongst the Cyclopedias (though not classed with the Lei-shu by the Han )
is the Wen-hsien-t'ung-k'ao, the celebrated work of Ma Tuan-lin. Its chapters
regarding foreign countries (ch. 324, seqq.) may be interesting enough to a Han reader who
wishes to learn some of the wonderful tales told at one time or another of each country
enumerated, but they are of little use to the critical student. A great part of Ma
Tuan-lin's remarks anent Ta-ts'in is apparently derived from the Wei-lio or from some
other records, perhaps even older than the Wei-lio but based on the same information as
the latter, whereas other parts remind again of the Hou-han-shu. The wording of his text
is often slightly altered from that of the text he copies as it may be traced in the
literature now existing; it therefore serves in many cases as a sort of commentary to the
texts of ancient records, for, as I have already intimated, many of the linguistic
difficulties of the latter, which at first sight look quite unsurmountable, disappear if
we see the same idea expressed in different words.
Some valuable information is contained in the Chu-fan-chih, an account of various
foreign countries, by Chao Ju-kua of the Sung dynasty. I copied the text of the Fu-lin
portion from an edition contained in a "collection of reprints" entitled
Hsiao-chin-chi-yuan. A superficial comparison of the Chu-fan-chih with what has been said
about Ta-ts'in and Fu-lin in former records will show that by far the greater part of
Ju-kua's notes is derived from the Han and T'ang records. On the other hand, it must be
admitted that certain notes look like independent statements, inasmuch as they cannot be
discovered in any previous work. But even these we may suspect to have been copied from
older books which may not exist now but may have been consulted by Chao Ju-kua. We possess
no direct record as to the period during which this author lived or wrote, but in the
Imperial Catalogue, 1. c., reference is made to a genealogical table in the Sung-shih,
which contains his name, and from which it appears that he was a descendant from a member
of the Imperial family of the Sung, whose real name was Chao, just as Hohenzollern is the
name of the kings of Prussia, and that he was born after the eighth generation dating from
T'ai-tsung, i.e., after the middle of the twelfth century. The "Catalogue"
further states that, foreign ships being allowed to trade at the southern ports under the
southern Sung dynasty, his position as Inspector of Salt Gabel brought him into frequent
contact with foreigners who supplied him with accounts of the countries they came from.
The title given him was that of Shih-po, which may be translated by "Superintendent
of Sea Trade." The Hsu-wen-hsien-t'ung-k'ao, the continuation of Ma Tuan-lin's work,
quoted in the Yuan-chien-lei-han, ch. 110, p. 33, states that the title Shih-po, in
connection with the superintendence of salt and revenue matters, was first used in Fu-kien
during the 14th year of Chih-yuan, and was abolished again in order to be replaced by the
title Yen-yun-ssu, the term used at the present day for a Collector of Salt Taxes, in the
24th year of the same period. This may possibly give us a clue as to the time when Chao
Ju-kua collected the information for his work; for the time during which alone the post
said to have been held by him existed in Fu-kien, extends from 1277 to 1287 C.E.. Both
time and locality seem to be in favor of the theory here advanced, of the principal
information collected with regard to foreign countries during the Sung and Yuan period
originating there and then. An official of the class described would most probably have
been stationed at the port of Chinchew or Ch'uan-chou-fu, for some time the provincial
capital.
Marco Polo's visit to that neighborhood must have taken place soon after that
period. The ports of Fu-kien were then, however, no longer in the hands of the Sung, who
were driven by the advancing Mongols into the Kuang-tung province; and if the two facts,
viz., that of Ju-kua's having been a member of the Sung family, and that of his having
occupied the post referred to, can be proved, there is room for the suspicion that he may
have maintained his position after the fall of his dynasty by voluntarily submitting to
the Mongol enemy. According to the "Catalogue," the chapters regarding
foreign countries in the Sung-Shih are partly based on the information contained in the
Chu-fan-chih, as the latter work contained more geographical detail than the court
archives.
The great cyclopedia in 5,000 volumes, the T'u-shu-chi-ch'eng, in its account of
Ta-ts'in and Fu-lin, quotes about all that may be found with regard to the
subject in the standard histories and other works, and, by naming the work from which each
quotation is derived, becomes infinitely more useful than Ma Tuan-lin's compilation, whose
labors, as well as all the cyclopedias published up to the time of K'ang-hsi, appear to be
almost superseded by this work. Next to collecting oneself the original passages regarding
any special subject, the study of this exhaustive digest will probably be found the most
useful source of information; and it seems that those who have access to the
T'u-shu-chi-ch'eng need not trouble much about the minor compilations. If such works as Ma
Tuan-lin's, the Yuan-chien-lei-han, etc., yet play a conspicuous part in sinological
research, it is because the larger work has not been accessible.
I have collected from the various historical works above referred to all the
accounts of Ta-ts'in and Fu-lin written during the period extending from the Former Han
dynasty up to that of the Ming, i.e., between the first and seventeenth centuries C.E.,
and also a few other texts which seemed necessary in order to understand certain clues as
to the route leading to that country at certain periods. I now offer a set of translations
of all these accounts, the greater part of which is translated for the first time, whereas
those which had been previously translated by others have been thoroughly revised, and in
some passages, sadly misunderstood by former translators, may pass as independent versions
altogether.
From the Shih-Chi, ch. 123, 91 B.C.E..:
When the first embassy was sent from Zhongguo [China] to Ar-hsi [Arsacids, or Parthia],
the king of Ar-hsi ordered twenty thousand cavalry to meet them on the eastern frontier.
The eastern frontier was several thousand li distant from the king's capital.
Proceeding to the north one came across several tens of cities, with very many
inhabitants, allied to that country. After the Han [Chinese] embassy had returned they
[the Parthians] sent forth an embassy to follow the Han embassy to come and see the extent
and greatness of the Han Empire. They offered to the Han court large birds'-eggs, and
jugglers from Li-kan [Syria].
From the Ch'ien-han-shu, ch. 96A, (written c. 90 C.E.), for 91
B.C.E.:
When the emperor Wu-ti [140-86 B.C.E.] first sent an embassy to Ar-hsi [Arsacids, or
Parthia], the king ordered a general to meet him on the eastern frontier with twenty
thousand cavalry. The eastern frontier was several thousand li distant from the
king's capital. Proceeding to the north one came across several tens of cities, the
inhabitants of which were allied with that country. As they sent forth an embassy to
follow the Han [Chinese] embassy, they came to see the country of Zhongguo [China]. They
offered to the Han court large birds'-eggs, and jugglers from Li-kan [Syria], at which His
Majesty was highly pleased. The king of the country of Ar-hsi rules at the city of
P'an-tou [Parthuva, or Hekatompylos]; its distance from Ch'ang-an is 11,600 li.
The country is not subject to a tu-hu [governor]. It bounds north on K'ang-chu,
east on Wu-i-shan-li, west on T'iao-chih [Babylonia]. The soil, climate, products, and
popular customs are the same as those of Wu-i and Chi-pin. They also make coins of silver,
which have the king's face on the obverse, and the face of his consort on the reverse.
When the king dies, they cast new coins. They have the ta-ma-ch'uo [ostrich].
Several hundred small and large cities are subject to it, and the country is several
thousand li in extent, that is, a very large country. It lies on the banks of the
Kuei-shui [Oxus River]. The carts and ships of their merchants go to the neighboring
countries. They write on parchment, and draw up documents in rows running sideways. In the
east of Ar-hsi are the Ta-yueh-chih.
From the Hou-Han-Shu, chs. 86, 88 (written 5th Century C.E.), for
25 - 220 C.E.:
During the 9th year [of Yung-yuan, 97 C.E.] the barbarian tribes outside the frontier
and the king of the country of Shan [Armenia], named Yung-yu-tiao, sent twofold
interpreters, and was endowed with state jewels. Ho-ti [Emperor, 89-106 C.E.] conferred a
golden seal with a purple ribbon, and the small chiefs were granted seals, ribbons, and
money. During the 1st year of Yung-ning [120 C.E.] the king of the country of Shan, named
Yung-yu-tiao, again sent an embassy who, being received to His Majesty's presence, offered
musicians and jugglers. The latter could conjure, spit fire, bind and release their limbs
without assistance, change the heads of cows and horses, and were clever at dancing with
up to a thousand balls. They said themselves: "We are men from the west of the sea;
the west of the sea is the same as Ta-ts'in [Roman Syria]. In the south-west of the
country of Shan one passes through to Ta-ts'in." At the beginning of the following
year they played music at court before An-ti [Emperor, 107-126 C.E.], when Yung-yu-tiao
was invested as a Ta-tu-wei [tributary prince] of the Han [Chinese] empire by
being granted a seal and a ribbon with gold and silver silk embroidered emblems, every one
of which had its own meaning. The city [Hira] of the country of T'iao-chih [Babylonia] is
situated on a peninsula; its circumference is over forty li and it borders on the
western sea [Persian Gulf/Indian Ocean]. The waters of the sea crookedly surround it. In
the east, and north-east, the road is cut off; only in the north-west there is access to
it by means of a land-road. The country is hot and low. It produces lions, rhinoceros,
feng-niu [Zebu, Bos indicus], peacocks, and large birds [ostriches?] whose eggs
are like urns. If you turn to the north and then towards the east again go on horseback
some sixty days, you come to Ar-hsi [Arsacids, or Parthia], to which afterwards it became
subject as a vassal state under a military governor who had control of all the small
cities. The country of Ar-hsi has its residence at the city of Ho-tu [Hekatompylos], it is
25,000 li distant from Lo-yang. In the north it bounds on K'ang-chu, and in the
south, on Wu-i-shan-li. The size of the country is several thousand li. There are
several hundred small cities with a vast number of inhabitants and soldiers. On its
eastern frontier is the city of Mu-lu [Avestan "Mouru", modern Merv], which is
called Little Ar-hsi [Parthia Minor]. It is 20,000 li distant from Lo-yang. In
the first year of Chang-ho, of the Emperor Chang-ti [87 C.E.], they sent an embassy
offering lions and fu-pa. The fu-pa has the shape of a lin [unicorn], but has no horn. In the 9th year of Yung-yüan of Ho-ti [97 C.E.] the tu-hu [governor] Pan Ch'ao sent Kan-ying as an ambassador to Ta-ts'in [Roman Syria], who arrived
in T'iao-chih [Babylonia], on the coast of the great sea [Persian Gulf]. When about to
take his passage across the sea, the sailors of the western frontier of Ar-hsi told
Kan-ying: "The sea [Indian Ocean] is vast and great; with favorable winds it is
possible to cross within three months---but if you meet slow winds, it may also take you
two years. It is for this reason that those who go to sea take on board a supply of three
years' provisions. There is something in the sea which is apt to make man home-sick, and
several have thus lost their lives." When Kan-ying heard this, he stopped. In the
13th year [101 C.E.] the king of Ar-hsi, Man-k'u, again offered as tribute lions and large
birds [ostriches] from T'iao-chih, which henceforth were named Ar-hsi-chiao [Parthian
birds]. From Ar-hsi you go west 3,400 li to the country of Uk-man [Ecbatana,
modern Hamadan]; from Uk-man you go west 3,600 li to the country of Si-pan
[Ktesiphon]; from Si-pan you go south, crossing a river [or by river], and again
south-west to the country of Yu-lo, 960 li, the extreme west frontier of An-hsi;
from here you travel south by sea, and so reach Ta-ts'in [at Aelana, modern Elat]. In this
country there are many of the precious and rare things of the western sea [Red Sea/Indian
Ocean]. The country of Ta-ts'in is also called Li-kan and, as being situated on the
western part of the sea, Hai-hsi-kuo [i.e., "country of the western part of
the sea"]. Its territory amounts to several thousand li; it contains over
four hundred cities, and of dependent states there are several times ten. The defences of
cities are made of stone. The postal stations and mile-stones on the roads are covered
with plaster. There are pine and cypress trees and all kinds of other trees and plants.
The people are much bent on agriculture, and practice the planting of trees and the
rearing of silk-worms. They cut the hair of their heads, wear embroidered clothing, and
drive in small carriages covered with white canopies; when going in or out they beat
drums, and hoist flags, banners, and pennants. The precincts of the walled city in which
they live measure over a hundred li in circumference. In the city there are five
palaces, ten li distant from each other. In the palace buildings they use crystal
[glass?] to make pillars; vessels used in taking meals are also so made. The king goes to
one palace a day to hear cases. After five days he has completed his round. As a rule,
they let a man with a bag follow the king's carriage. Those who have some matter to
submit, throw a petition into the bag. When the king arrives at the palace, he examines
into the rights and wrongs of the matter. The official documents are under the control of
thirty-six chiang [generals?] who conjointly discuss government affairs. Their
kings are not permanent rulers, but they appoint men of merit. When a severe calamity
visits the country, or untimely rain-storms, the king is deposed and replaced by another.
The one relieved from his duties submits to his degradation without a murmur. The
inhabitants of that country are tall and well-proportioned, somewhat like the Han
[Chinese], whence they are called Ta-ts'in. The country contains much gold, silver, and
rare precious stones, especially the "jewel that shines at night," "the
moonshine pearl," the hsieh-chi-hsi, corals, amber, glass, lang-kan [a kind of coral], chu-tan [cinnabar ?], green jadestone [ching-pi],
gold-embroidered rugs and thin silk-cloth of various colors. They make gold-colored cloth
and asbestos cloth. They further have "fine cloth," also called Shui-yang-ts'ui [i.e., down of the water-sheep]; it is made from the cocoons of wild silk-worms.
They collect all kinds of fragrant substances, the juice of which they boil into su-ho [storax]. All the rare gems of other foreign countries come from there. They make coins of
gold and silver. Ten units of silver are worth one of gold. They traffic by sea with
Ar-hsi and T'ien-chu [India], the profit of which trade is ten-fold. They are honest in
their transactions, and there are no double prices. Cereals are always cheap. The budget
is based on a well-filled treasury. When the embassies of neighboring countries come to
their frontier, they are driven by post to the capital, and, on arrival, are presented
with golden money. Their kings always desired to send embassies to Zhongguo [China], but
the Ar-hsi wished to carry on trade with them in Han silks, and it is for this reason that
they were cut off from communication. This lasted till the ninth year of the Yen-hsi
period during the emperor Huan-ti's reign [166 C.E.] when the king of Ta-ts'in, An-tun
[Marcus Aurelius Antoninus], sent an embassy who, from the frontier of Jih-nan [Annam]
offered ivory, rhinoceros horns, and tortoise shell. From that time dates the direct
intercourse with this country. The list of their tribute contained no jewels whatever,
which fact throws doubt on the tradition. It is said by some that in the west of this
country there is the Jo-shui ["weak water"--probably the Dead Sea] and
the Liu-sha ["flying sands, desert"] near the residence of the Hsi-wang-mu ["mother of the western king"], where the sun sets. The Ch'ien-han-shu says: "From T'iao-chih [Babylonia] west, going over 200 days, one is near the place
where the sun sets"; this does not agree with the present book. Former embassies from
Zhongguo all returned from Wu-i; there were none who came as far as T'iao-chih. It is
further said that, coming from the land-road of Ar-hsi, you make a round at sea and,
taking a northern turn, come out from the western part of the sea, whence you proceed to
Ta-ts'in.
The country is densely populated; every ten li [of a road] are marked by a t'ing;
thirty li by a chih [resting-place]. One is not alarmed by robbers, but
the road becomes unsafe by fierce tigers and lions who will attack passengers, and unless
these be travelling in caravans of a hundred men or more, or be protected by military
equipment, they may be devoured by those beasts. They also say there is a flying bridge
[the bridge over the Euphrates at Zeugma] of several hundred li, by which one may
cross to the countries north of the sea. The articles made of rare precious stones
produced in this country are sham curiosities and mostly not genuine, whence they are not
here mentioned.
From the Wei-lio (written before 429 C.E.), for 220-264 C.E.:
Formerly T'iao-chih [Babylonia] was wrongly believed to be in the west of Ta-ts'in
[Roman Syria]; now its real position is known to be east. Formerly it was also wrongly
believed to be stronger than Ar-hsi [Arsacids, or Parthia]; now it is changed into a
vassal state said to make the western frontier of Ar-hsi. Formerly it was, further,
wrongly believed that the Jo-shui [Dead Sea] was in the west of T'iao-chih; now the
Jo-shui is believed to be in the west of Ta-ts'in. Formerly it was wrongly believed that,
going over two hundred days west of T'iao-chih, one came near the place where the sun
sets; now, one comes near the place where the sun sets by going west of Ta-ts'in. The
country of Ta-ts'in, also called Li-kan [Syria], is on the west of the great sea [Indian
Ocean] west of Ar-hsi and T'iao-chih. From the city of Ar-ku [Uruku, modern Warka] , on
the boundary of Ar-hsi one takes passage in a ship and, traversing the west of the sea,
with favorable winds arrives [at Aelana, modern Elat, on the Gulf of Aqaba] in two months;
with slow winds, the passage may last a year, and with no wind at all, perhaps three
years. This country is on the west of the sea whence it is commonly called Hai-hsi
[Egypt]. There is a river [the Nile] coming out from the west of this country, and there
is another great sea [the Mediterranean]. In the west of the sea there is the city of
Ali-san [Alexandria]. Before one arrives in the country one goes straight north from the
city of U-tan [Aden]. In the south-west one further travels by a river which on board ship
one crosses in one day [again the Nile]; and again south-west one travels by a river which
is crossed in one day [still the Nile]. There are three great divisions of the country
[Delta, Heptanomis, Thebaid]. From the city of Ar-ku one goes by land due north to the
north of the sea; and again one goes due west to the west of the sea; and again you go due
south to arrive there. At the city of Ali-san, you travel by river on board ship one day,
then make a round at sea, and after six days' passage on the great sea [the
Mediterranean], arrive in this country. There are in the country in all over four hundred
smaller cities; its size is several thousand li in all directions of the compass.
The residence of their king lies on the banks of a river estuary [Antioch-on-the-Orontes].
They use stone in making city walls. In this country there are the trees sung [pine], po[cypress], huai [sophora?], tzu [a kind of
euphorbia?]; bamboos, rushes, poplars, willows, the wu-t'ung tree, and all kinds
of other plants. The people are given to planting on the fields all kinds of grain. Their
domestic animals are: the horse, the donkey, the mule, the camel, and the mulberry
silk-worm. There are many jugglers who can issue fire from their mouths, bind and release
themselves, and dance on twenty balls. In this country they have no permanent rulers, but
when an extraordinary calamity visits the country, they elect as king a worthier man,
while discharging the old king, who does not even dare to feel angry at this decision. The
people are tall, and upright in their dealings, like the Han [Chinese], but wear foreign
dress; they call their country another "Middle Kingdom" [probably from
"Mediterranean" or "Middle of the Land"].
They always wished to send embassies to Zhongguo [China], but the Ar-hsi [Parthians]
wanted to make profit out of their trade with us, and would not allow them to pass their
country. They can read foreign books. They regulate by law public and private matters. The
palace buildings are held sacred. They hoist flags, beat drums, use small carriages with
white canopies, and have postal stations like the Han. Coming from Ar-hsi you make a round
at sea and, in the north, come to this country. The people live close together. They have
no robbers and thieves; but there are fierce tigers and lions that will attack travellers,
and unless these go in caravans, they cannot pass the country. They have several times ten
small kings. The residence of their king is over a hundred li in circuit. They
have official archives. The king has five palaces, ten li apart from each other.
The king hears the cases of one palace in the morning till being tired at night; the next
morning he goes to another palace; in five days he has completed his round. Thirty-six
generals always consult upon public matters; if one general does not go to the meeting,
they do not consult. When the king goes out he usually gets one of his suite to follow him
with a leather bag, into which petitioners throw a statement of their cases; on arrival at
the palace, the king examines into the merits of each case. They use crystal in making the
pillars of palaces as well as implements of all kinds. They make bows and arrows.
The following dependent small states are enumerated separately, viz., the
kings of Ala-san [Alexandria-Euphrates, or Charax Spasinu], Lu-fen [Nikephorium],
Ch'ieh-lan [Palmyra], Hsien-tu [Damascus], Si-fu [Emesa], and Ho-lat [Hira]; and of other
small kingdoms there are very many; it is impossible to enumerate them one by one. The
country produces fine ch'ih [hemp or hemp cloth]. They make gold and silver
money; one coin of gold is worth ten of silver. They weave fine cloth, and say they use
the down of water-sheep in making it; it is called Hai-hsi-pu [cloth from the
west of the sea]. In this country all the domestic-animals come out of the water. Some say
that they do not only use sheep's wool, but also the bark of trees [vegetable fiber?] and
the silk of wild silk-worms in weaving cloth, and the Ch'u-shu, the T'a-teng, and
Chi-chang class of goods [serge or plush rugs?] of their looms are all good; their colors
are of brighter appearance than are the colors of those manufactured in the countries on
the east of the sea. Further, they were always anxious to get Han silk for severing it in
order to make hu-ling [damask, gauze?], for which reason they frequently trade by
sea with the countries of Ar-hsi. The sea-water being bitter and unfit for drinking is the
cause that but few travellers come to this country. The hills in this country produce
inferior jade-stones of nine colors, viz., blue, carnation, yellow, white, black,
green, crimson, red, and purple. The Chiu-se-shih[nine-colored stones] which are
now found in the I-wu-shan belong to this category. During the third year of
Yang-chia [134 C.E.] the king and minister of Su-le [Kashgar?] presented to the court each
a golden girdle beset with blue stones [lapis lazuli] from Hai-hsi, and the Chin-hsi-yu-chiu-t'u says: the rare stones coming from the countries of Chi-pin [Afghanistan?] and T'iao-chih
[Babylonia] are inferior jadestones.
The following products are frequently found in Ta-ts'in: Gold. Silver. Copper. Iron.
Lead.
Tin. Tortoises. White horses. Red hair. Hsieh-chi-hsi. Tortoise shell. Black
bears. Ch'ih-ch'ih.P'i-tu-shu. Large conches. Ch'e-ch'u. Carnelian
stones. Southern gold. King-fishers' gems. Ivory.
Fu-ts'ai-yu. Ming-yueh-chu. Yeh-kuang-chu. Real white pearls. Amber. Corals.
Ten colors of opaque glass, viz., carnation, white, black, green, yellow, blue,
purple, azure, red, and red-brown. Ch'iu-lin
Lang-kan. Rock crystal. Mei-kuei [garnets?]. Realgar and orpiment.
Five colors of Pi. Ten kinds of Jade, viz., yellow, white, black, green,
a brownish red, crimson, purple, gold, yellow, azure, and a reddish yellow. Five colors of Ch'u-shu [rugs?]. Five colors T'ao-pu. Five colors of T'a- teng[rugs?]. Chiang-ti. Nine colors of Shou-hsia t'a-teng. Curtains interwoven with
gold. Gold embroideries. Five colors of Tou-cHan [Chinese]g. Damasks of various
colors. Chin-t'u-pu [Gold colored cloth?]. Fei-ch'ih-pu. Fa-lu-pu.
Fei-ch'ih-ch 'u-pu. Asbestos cloth. O-lo-te-pu. Pa-tse-pu. To-tai-pu. Wen-se-pu.
I-wei-mu-erh. Storax. Ti-ti-mi-mi-tou-na. Pai-fu-tzu. Hsun-lu.
Yu-chin.Yun-chiao-hsun, in all 12 kinds of vegetable fragrant substances.
After the road from Ta-ts'in had been performed from the north of the sea by land,
another road was tried which followed the sea to the south and connected with the north of
the outer barbarians at the seven principalities of Chiao-chih [Cochin China (South
Vietnam)]; and there was also a water-road leading through to Yi-chou and Yung-ch'ang [in
the present Yunnan]. It is for this reason that curiosities come from Yung-ch'ang.
Formerly only the water-road was spoken of; they did not know there was an overland route.
Now the accounts of the country are as follows. The number of inhabitants cannot be
stated. This country is the largest in the west of the Ts'ung-ling. The number of small
rulers established under its supremacy is very large. We, therefore, record only the
larger ones. The king of Ala-san [Charax Spasinu] is subject to Ta-ts'in. His residence
lies right in the middle of the sea. North you go to Lu-fen [Nikephorium] by water half a
year, with quick winds a month; it is nearest to the city of Ar-ku [Uruk, modern Warka] in
Ar-hsi [Parthia]. South-west you go to the capital of Ta-ts'in [Antioch-on-the-Orontes];
we do not know the number of li. The king of Lu-fen [Nikephorium] is subject to
Ta-ts'in. His residence is 2,000 li distant from the capital of Ta-ts'in. The flying
bridge across the river [the bridge over the Euphrates at Zeugma] in Ta-ts'in west of the
city of Lu-fen is 230 li in length. The road, if you cross the river, goes to the
south-west; if you make a round on the river, you go due west. The king of Ch'ieh-lan
[Palmyra] is subject to Ta-ts'in. Coming from the country of Si-t'ao [Sittake] you go due
south, cross a river, and then go due west to Ch'ieh-lan 3,000 li; when the road
comes out in the south of the river, you go west. Coming from Ch'ieh-lan you go again
straight to the country of Si-fu [Emesa] on the western river 600 li; where the
southern road joins the Si-fu road there is the country of Hsien-tu [Damascus] in the
south-west. Going due south from Ch'ieh-lan and Si-fu there is the "Stony Land"
[Arabia Petraea]; in the soil of the Stony Land there is the great sea [Red Sea] which
produces corals and real pearls. In the north of Ch'ieh-lan, Si-fu, Si-pan [Ktesiphon] and
Uk-man [Ecbatana] there is a range of hills extending from east to west [the Taurus
Mountains]; in the east of Ta-ts'in as well as of Hai-tung [the country on the eastern
arm of the Great Sea, i.e., on the Persian Gulf] there are ranges of hills extending
from north to south [the Zagros Mountains].
The king of Hsien-tu is subject to Ta-ts'in. From his residence you go 600 li north-east to Si-fu. The king of Si-fu is subject to Ta-ts'in. From his residence you go
to Ho-lat [Hira] north-east 340 li, across the river. Ho-lat is subject to
Ta-ts'in. Its residence is in the north-east of Si-fu across the river. From Ho-lat
north-east you again cross a river to Si-lo [Seleukia]; and north-east of this you again
cross a river. The country of Si-lo is subject to Ar-hsi [Parthia] and is on the boundary
of Ta-ts'in. In the west of Ta-ts'in there is the water of the sea [the Mediterranean];
west of this is the water of a river [the Orontes]; west of the river there is a large
range of hills extending from north to south [the Lebanon]; west of this there is the
Ch'ih-shui [Jordan River?]; west of the Ch'ih-shui there is the White Jade Hill; on the
White Jade Hill there is the Hsi-wang-mu; west of the Hsi-wang-mu there is the rectified
Liu-sha [the "Flying Sands"]; west of the Liu-sha there are the four countries
of Ta-hsia, Chien-sha, Shu-yu and Yueh-chih. West of these there is the Hei-shui [Black or
Dark River] which is reported to be the western terminus of the world.
From the Chin-shu, ch. 97 (written early 7th Century C.E.), for
265-419 C.E.:
Ta-ts'in [Roman Syria], also called Li-kan, is in the western part of the western sea
[Persian Gulf]. In this country several thousand li in all directions of the
compass are covered with cities and other inhabited places. Its capital is over a hundred li in circumference. The inhabitants use coral in making the kingposts of their dwellings;
they use opaque glass in making walls, and crystal in making the pedestals of pillars.
Their king has five palaces. The palaces are ten li distant from each other.
Every morning the king hears cases in one palace; when he has finished he begins anew.
When the country is visited by an extraordinary calamity, a wiser man is elected; the old
king is relieved from his duties, and the king so dismissed does not dare to consider
himself ill-treated. They have keepers of official records and interpreters who are
acquainted with their style of writing. They have also small carriages with white
canopies, flags, and banners, and postal arrangements, just as we have them in Zhongguo
[China]. The inhabitants are tall, and their faces resemble those of the Han [Chinese],
but they wear foreign dress. Their country exports much gold and precious stones, shining
pearls, and large conches; they have the "jewel that shines at night," the hsieh-chi-hsi,
and asbestos cloth; they know how to embroider cloth with gold thread and weave
gold-embroidered rugs. They make gold and silver coins; ten silver coins are worth one gold coin. The inhabitants of Ar-hsi
[Arsacids, or Parthia] and T'ien-chu [India] have trade with them by sea; its profit is
hundred-fold. When the envoys of neighboring countries arrive there, they are provided
with golden money. The water of the great sea which is crossed on the road thither is salt
and bitter, and unfit for drinking purposes; the merchants travelling to and fro are
provided with three years' provisions; hence, there are not many going.
At the time of the Han dynasty, the tu-hu Pan Ch'ao sent his subordinate
officer Kan-ying as an envoy to that country; but the sailors who were going out to sea
said, "that there was something about the sea which caused one to long for home;
those who went out could not help being seized by melancholy feelings; if the Han envoy
did not care for his parents, his wife, and his children, he might go." Ying could
not take his passage. During the T'ai-k'ang period of the emperor Wu-ti [280-290 C.E.]
their king sent an envoy to offer tribute.
From the Sung-shu, ch. 97 (written c. 500 C.E.), for 420-478
C.E.:
As regards Ta-ts'in [Roman Syria] and T'ien-chu [India], far out on the western ocean
[Indian Ocean], we have to say that; although the envoys of the two Han dynasties [Chang
Ch'ien, and Pan Ch'ao] have experienced the special difficulties of this road, yet
traffic in merchandise has been effected, and goods have been sent out to the foreign
tribes, the force of winds driving them far away across the waves of the sea. There are
lofty ranges of hills quite different from those we know and a great variety of populous
tribes having different names and bearing uncommon designations, they being of a class
quite different from our own. All the precious things of land and water come from there,
as well as the gems made of rhinoceros' horns and king-fishers' stones [chrysoprase], she-chu [serpent pearls] and asbestos cloth, there being innumerable varieties of these
curiosities; and also the doctrine of the abstraction of mind in devotion to the shih-chu ["lord of the world" or "the Buddha"---here meaning "the
Christ"] all this having caused navigation and trade to be extended to those parts.
From the Liang-shu, ch. 54 (written c. 629 C.E.), for 502-556
C.E.:
In the west of it [viz., Chung T'ien-chu, or India] they carry on much trade
by sea to Ta-ts'in [Roman Syria] and Ar-hsi [Arsacids, or Parthia], especially in articles
of Ta-ts'in, such as all kinds of precious things, coral, amber, chin-pi [gold
jadestone], chu-chi [a kind of pearl], lang-kan, Yu-chin [turmeric?] and
storax. Storax is made by mixing and boiling the juice of various fragrant trees; it is
not a natural product. It is further said that the inhabitants of Ta-ts'in gather the
storax plant, squeeze its juice out, and thus make a balsam [hsiang-kao]; they
then sell its dregs to the traders of other countries; it thus goes through many hands
before reaching Zhongguo [China], and, when arriving here, is not so very fragrant. Yu-chin [turmeric ?] only comes from the country of Chi-pin [a country near the Persian gulf],
etc., etc.
In the ninth year of the Yen-hsi period of Huan-ti of the Han dynasty [166 C.E.] the
king of Ta-ts'in, An-tun [Marcus Aurelius Antoninus], sent an embassy with tribute from
the frontier of Jih-nan [Annam]; during the Han period they have only once communicated
with Zhongguo. The merchants of this country frequently visit Fu-nan [Siam] Jih-nan
[Annam] and Chiao-chih [Cochin China]; but few of the inhabitants of these southern
frontier states have come to Ta-ts'in. During the fifth year of the Huang-wu period of the
reign of Sun-ch'uan [226 C.E.] a merchant of Ta-ts'in, whose name was Ts'in-lun, came to
Chiao-chih [Cochin China]; the prefect [t'ai-shou] of Chiao-chih, Wu Miao, sent
him to Sun-ch'uan [the Wu emperor], who asked him for a report on his native country and
its people. Ts'in-lun prepared a statement, and replied. At the time Chu-ko K'o [Nephew to
Chu-ko Liang, alias K'ung-ming] chastised Tan-yang [or Kiang-nan] and they had
caught blackish colored dwarfs. When Ts'in-lun saw them he said that in Ta-ts'in these men
are rarely seen. Sun-ch'uan then sent male and female dwarfs, ten of each, in charge of an
officer, Liu Hsien of Hui-chi [a district in Chekiang], to accompany Ts'in-lun. Liu Hsien
died on the road, whereupon Ts'in-lun returned direct to his native country.
From the Wei-Shu, ch. 102 (written before 572 C.E.), for 386-556
C.E.:
The country of Ta-ts'in [Roman Syria] is also called Li-kan [Syria]. Its capital is the
city of An-tu [Antioch]. From T'iao-chih [Babylonia] west you go by sea, making a bent,
ten thousand li. From Tai [Ta-t'ung fu?] it is distant 39,400 li. By the
side of its sea one comes out at what is like an arm of the sea [the Gulfs of Aqaba and
Suez], and that the east and the west of the country look into that arm of the sea is a
natural arrangement. Its territory amounts to six thousand li. It lies between
two seas. This country is peacefully governed, and human dwellings are scattered over it
like stars. The royal capital [Antioch] is divided into five cities, each five li square; its circuit is 60 li. The king resides in the middle city. In the city
there are established eight high officials to rule over the four quarters of the country;
but in the royal city there are also established eight high officials who divide among
themselves the government over the four cities. When government matters are deliberated
upon, and if in the four quarters of the country there are cases not decided, the high
officials of the four cities hold a council at the king's place. After the king has
sanctioned their decision it is put into force. Once in three years the king goes out to
convince himself of the morality of the people. If anyone has suffered an injustice he
states his complaint to the king who, in minor cases, will censure, but in important
cases, will dismiss the country official responsible for it, appointing a worthier man in
his stead. The inhabitants are upright and tall; their mode of dressing, their carriages
and flags, resemble those of the Han [Chinese], whence other foreign nations call them
Ta-ts'in. The country produces all kinds of grain, the mulberry tree and hemp. The
inhabitants busy themselves with silk-worms and fields. There is abundance of ch'iu-lin [a kind of jadestone]; lang-kan [a kind of coral]; shen-kuei [a kind of
tortoise or its shell]; white horses; chu-lieh [lit. "red bristles"--a
gem]; ming-chu [shining pearls]; yeh-kuang-pi [the jewel that shines at
night].
South-east you go to Chiao-chih [Cochin China]. There is also connection by water with
the principalities of Yi-chou [Yunnan] and Yung-ch'ang [near Bhamo]. Many rare objects
come from this country. In the west of the water of the sea west of Ta-ts'in there is a
river; the river flows southwest [Orontes]; west of the river there are the Nan-pei-shan
[the Lebanon]; west of the hills there is the Red Water [Red Sea/Gulf of Aqaba]; west of
this is the Pai-yu-shan [Mt. Sinai]; west of the Jade Hill is the Hsi-wang-mu-shan [Hill
of the Western King's Mother], where a temple is made of jadestone [the Pyramids]. It is
said that from the western boundary of Ar-hsi [Arsacids, or Parthia], following the
crooked shape of the seacoast, you can also go to Ta-ts'in, over 40,000 li.
Although in that country sun and moon, and the constellations, are quite the same as in
Zhongguo, former historians say that going a hundred li west of T'iao-chih
[Babylonia] you come to the place where the sun sets; this is far from being true.
From the Chiu-t'ang-shu, ch. 198 (written mid-10th Century C.E.),
for 618-906 C.E.:
The country of Fu-lin [Byzantium], also called Ta-ts'in [Roman Syria], lies above the
western sea [Indian Ocean]. In the southeast it borders on Po-si [Persia]. Its territory
amounts to over 10,000 li. Of cities there are four hundred. Inhabited places are
close together. The eaves, pillars, and window-bars of their palaces are frequently made
with crystal and opaque glass. There are twelve honorable ministers who conjointly
regulate government matters. They ordinarily let a man take a bag and follow the king's
carriage. When the people have a complaint they throw a written statement into the bag.
When the king comes back to the palace he decides between right and wrong. Their kings are
not permanent rulers, but they select men of merit. If an extraordinary calamity visits
the country, or if wind and rain come at the wrong time, he is deposed and another man is
put in his stead. The king's cap is shaped like a bird raising its wings; its trimmings
are beset with precious pearls; he wears silk-embroidered clothing, without a lapel in
front. He sits on a throne with golden ornaments. He has a bird like a goose; its feathers
are green, and it always sits on a cushion by the side of the king. Whenever anything
poisonous has been put into the king's meals, the bird will crow. The walls of their
capital are built of granite, and are of enormous height [the Theodosian triple walls].
The city[Constantinople] contains in all over 100,000 households [some 500,000 to 600,000
inhabitants]. In the south it faces the great sea. In the east of the city there is a
large gate; its height is over twenty chang [over 235 feet]; it is beset with
yellow gold [bronze] from top to bottom, and shines at a distance of several li.
Coming from outside to the royal residence there are three large gates beset with all
kinds of rare and precious stones. On the upper floor of the second gate they have
suspended a large golden scale, twelve golden balls are suspended from the scale-stick by
which the twelve hours of the day are shown. A human figure has been made all of gold of
the size of a man standing upright, on whose side, whenever an hour has come, one of the
golden balls will drop, the dingling sound of which makes known the divisions of the day
without the slightest mistake [a clepsydra]. In the palaces, pillars are made of se-se [lapis lazuli], the floors of yellow gold [probably bronze], the leaves of folding doors
of ivory, beams of fragrant wood. They have no tiles, but powdered plaster is rammed down
into a floor above the house. This floor is perfectly firm and of glossy appearance like
jade-stone. When, during the height of summer, the inhabitants are oppressed by heat, they
lead water up and make it flow over the platform, spreading it all over the roof by a
secret contrivance so that one sees and knows not how it is done, but simply hears the
noise of a well on the roof; suddenly you see streams of water rushing down from the four
eaves like a cataract; the draught caused thereby produces a cooling wind, which is due to
this skilful contrivance [a common device in the Near East].
It is customary for men to have their hair cut and wear robes leaving the right arm
bare. Women have no lapels on their dresses, they wear turbans of embroidered cloth. The
possession of a great fortune confers superior rank on its owner. There are lambs which
grow in the ground; the inhabitants wait till they are about to sprout, and then screen
them off by building walls to prevent the beasts which are at large outside from eating
them up. The navel of these lambs is connected with the ground; when it is forcibly cut
the animal will die, but after the people have fixed the buds themselves' they frighten
them by the steps of horses or the beating of drums, when the lambs will yield a sound of
alarm, and the navel will be detached, and then the animal may be separated from the
water-plant. The inhabitants are in the habit of cutting their hair and wearing
embroidered clothing; they drive in small carriages with white canopies; when going in or
out they beat drums and hoist flags, banners, and pennants. The country contains much
gold, silver, and rare gems. There is the Yeh-kuang-pi [the jewel that shines at
night]; the ming-yüeh-chu [the moon-shine pearl]; the hsieh-chi-hsi [the chicken-frightening rhinoceros stone]; large conches; the che-ch'u [mother-of-pearl], carnelian stones; the k'ung-ts'ui [Jadeite]; corals; amber;
and all the valuable curiosities of the West are exported from this country.
The emperor Yang-ti of the Sui dynasty [605-617 C.E.] always wished to open intercourse
with Fu-lin, but did not succeed. In the 17th year of the period Cheng-kuan [643 C.E.],
the king of Fu-lin Po-to-li [Constans II Pogonatus, Emperor 641-668 C.E.] sent an embassy
offering red glass, lu-chin-ching [green gold gems], and other articles.
T'ai-tsung [the then ruling emperor] favored them with a message under his imperial seal
and graciously granted presents of silk. Since the Ta-shih [the Arabs] had conquered these
countries they sent their commander-in-chief, Mo-i [Mo'awiya], to besiege their capital
city; by means of an agreement they obtained friendly relations, and asked to be allowed
to pay every year tribute of gold and silk; in the sequel they became subject to Ta-shih.
In the second year of the period Ch'ien-feng [667 C.E.] they sent an embassy offering Ti-yeh-ka.
In the first year of the period Ta-tsu [701 C.E.] they again sent an embassy to our court.
In the first month of the seventh year of the period K'ai-yuan [719 C.E.] their lord sent
the ta-shou-ling [an officer of high rank] of T'u-huo-lo [Khazarstan] to offer
lions and ling-yang[antelopes], two of each. A few months after, he further sent ta-te-seng ["priests of great virtue"] to our court with tribute.
From the Hsin-t'ang-shu, ch. 221 (written mid-11th Century C.E.),
for 1060 C.E.:
Fu-lin [Byzantium] is the ancient Ta-ts'in [Roman Syria]. It lies above the western sea
[Indian Ocean]. Some call it Hai-hsi-kuo [i.e., "country on the west of the
sea"]. It is 40,000 li distant from our capital and lies in the west of Shan
[Armenia]; north you go straight to the Ko-sa tribe [Khazars] of Tu-ch'ueh. In the west it
borders on the sea-coast with the city of Ali-san [Alexandria]. In the south-east it
borders on Po-si [Persia]. Its territory amounts to 10,000 li; of cities there
are four hundred; of soldiers a million. Ten li make one t'ing; three t'ing make one chih. Of subjected small countries there are several times ten. Those
which are known by name are called Ala-san [Charax Spasinu] and Lu-fen [Nikephorium];
Ala-san is direct north-east, but we cannot obtain the number of li of its road;
in the east, by sea 2000 li, you come to the Lu-fen country. The capital of
Fu-lin [Constantinople] is built of granite stone; the city is eighty li broad;
the east gate is twenty chang[235 feet] high and chased with yellow gold
[bronze]. The royal palace has three portals which are beset with precious stones. In the
middle portal there is a large golden scale; a man made all of gold, standing [a
clepsydra]. On the yard of that scale there are hanging twelve little balls, one of which
will fall fown whenever an hour is completed. In making the pillars of palaces they use se-se,
and in making the kingposts of their roofs they use rock crystal and opaque glass; in
making floors they use beams of fragrant wood and yellow gold; the leaves of their folding
doors are of ivory.
Twelve honored ministers have joint charge of the government. When the king goes out, a
man follows him with a bag, and whatever complaints there may be are thrown into the bag;
on returning he examines into right and wrong. When the country is visited by an
extraordinary calamity, the king is deposed and a worthier man is placed in his position.
The king's official cap is like the wings of a bird, and pearls are sewn on it; his
garments are of embroidered silk, but there is no lapel in front. He sits on a couch with
golden ornaments; at his side there is a bird like a goose, with green feathers; when his
majesty eats anything poisonous it will crow. There are no roofs made of earthen tiles;
but the roofs are overlaid with white stones, hard and shining like jadestone. During the
height of summer heat, water is laid up and made to flow down from the top, the draught
thereby caused producing wind. The men there cut their hair; they wear embroidered
clothing in the shape of a gown that leaves the right arm bare. They ride in heavy and
light carriages and carts covered with white canopies. When going out or coming back they
hoist flags and beat drums. Married women wear embroidered tiaras. The millionaires of the
country are the official aristocracy. The inhabitants enjoy wine and have a fancy for dry
cakes. There are amongst them many jugglers who can issue fire from their faces, produce
rivers and lakes from their hands, and banners and tufts of feathers from their mouths,
and who, raising their feet, drop pearls and jadestones. They have clever physicians who,
by opening the brain and extracting worms, can cure mu-sheng [a sort of
blindness]. The country contains much gold and silver; the jewel that shines at night and
the moon-shine pearl; large conches; che-ch'u [mother-of-pearl?]; carnelian
stones; mu-nan [a kind of pearl]; king-fishers' feathers [lapis lazuli]; and
amber. They weave the hair of the water-sheep [shui-yang] into cloth which is
called Hai-hsi-pu [cloth from the west of the sea]. In the sea there are coral
islands. The fishers sit in large boats and let wire nets into the water down to the
corals. When the corals first grow from the rocks they are white like mushrooms; after a
year they turn yellow; after three years they turn red. Then the branches begin to
intertwine, having grown to a height of three to four chih [up to five feet]. The
net being cast the coral roots get entangled in the net, when the men on board have to
turn round in order to take them out. If they miss their time in fishing for it the coral
will decay. On the western sea [Indian Ocean] there are markets where the traders do not
see one another, the price being deposited by the side of the merchandise; they are called
"spirit markets." There is a quadruped called Ts'ung; it has the size
of a dog, is fierce and repulsive, and strong. In a northern district there is a sheep
that grows out of the ground; its navel is attached to the ground, and if it is cut the
animal will die. The inhabitants will frighten them by the steps of horses or by beating
drums. The navel being thus detached, they are taken off the water plants; they do not
make flocks. During the 17th year of Cheng-kuan [643 C.E.] the king Po-to-li [Constans II
Pogonatus, Emperor 641-668 C.E.] sent an embassy offering red glass and lu-chin-ching [green gold gems], and a cabinet order was issued as an acknowledgment. When the Ta-shih
[Arabs] usurped power over these countries, they sent their general, Mo-i [Mo'awiya, then
Governor of Syria, afterwards Caliph 661-680 C.E.], to reduce them to order. Fu-lin
obtained peace by an agreement, but in the sequel became subject to Ta-shih. From the
period Ch'ien-feng [666-668 C.E.] till the period Ta-tsu [701 C.E.] they have repeatedly
offered tribute to the Han [Chinese] court. In the seventh year of the K'ai-yuan period
[719 C.E.] they offered through the ta-yu [a high official] of T'u-huo-lo
[Khazarstan] lions and ling-yang [antelopes].
Crossing the desert in the south-west of Fu-lin, at a distance of 2,000 li there are two countries called Mo-lin ['Alwa, or Upper Kush] and Lao-p'o-sa [Maqurra, or
Lower Kush]. Their inhabitants are black and of a violent disposition. The country is
malarious and has no vegetation. They feed their horses on dried fish, and live themselves
on hu-mang [the Persian date--Phoenix dactylifera]. They are not ashamed
to have most frequent illicit intercourse with savages; they call this "establishing
the relation between lord and subject." On one of seven days they refrain from doing
business, and carouse all night.
From the Nestorian Stone Inscription, cols. 12-13 (written 781
C.E.):
According to the Hsi-yu-t'u-chi and the historical records of the Han and Wei
dynasties, the country of Ta-ts'in [Roman Syria] begins in the south at the Coral Sea, and
extends in the north to the Chung-pau-shan [hills of precious stones], it looks
in the west to "the region of the immortals" and "the flowery groves";
in the east it bounds on "the long winds" and "the weak water" [the
Dead Sea]. This country produces fire-proof cloth [asbestos]; the life-restoring incense;
the ming-yueh-chu [moon-shine pearl]; and the yeh-kuang-pi [jewel that
shines at night]. Robberies are unknown there, and the people enjoy peace and happiness.
Only the luminous [i.e., Christian] religion is practised; only virtuous rulers
occupy the throne. This country is vast in extent; its literature is flourishing.
From the Sung-shih, ch. 490 (written late 13th Century C.E.), for
960-1279 C.E.:
The country of Fu-lin [Byzantium]. South-east of it you go to Mei-lu-ku [Kilikia
("Cilicia")]; north you go to the sea [Black Sea]; both forty days' journey;
west you go to the sea [Mediterranean], thirty days' journey; in the east, starting from
western Ta-shih, you come to Yu-tien [Khoten], Hui-ho and Ch'ing-t'ang, and finally reach
Zhongguo [China]. They have during former dynasties not sent tribute to our court. During
the tenth month of the fourth year of the period Yuan-feng [November, 1081 C.E.], their
king, Mieh-li-i-ling-kai-sa [Michael VII Parapinaces Caesar], first sent the ta-shou-ling [a high official] Ni-si-tu-ling-si-meng-p'an to offer as tribute saddled horses,
sword-blades, and real pearls. He said: the climate of this country is very cold; houses
there have no tiles; the products are gold, silver, pearls, western silk cloth, cows,
sheep, horses' camels with single humps, pears, almonds, dates, pa-lan [a kind of
date], millet, and wheat. They make wine from grapes; their musical instruments are the
lute, the hu-ch'in [the "tea-pot-shaped lute"]; the hsiao-pi-li[a
kind of flageolet]; and the p'ien-ku ["side drum"]. The king dresses in
red and yellow robes, and wears a turban of silken cloth interwoven with gold thread. In
the third month every year he goes to the Temple of Fou-shih [ "Temple of
Buddha", here meaning either Muhammed or Christ; in other places the Qu'ran is
described as Fou-ching".], to sit on a red couch [palanquin?] which he gets
the people to lift. His honored servants [ministers, courtiers, priests?] are dressed like
the king, but wear blue, green, purple, white mottled, red, yellow, or brown stuff, wear
turbans and ride on horseback. The towns and the country districts are each under the
jurisdiction of a shou-ling [chief, sheik?]. Twice a year, during the summer and
autumn, they must offer money and cloth [chin-ku-po]. In their criminal decisions
they distinguish between great and small offences. Light offences are punished by several
tens of blows with the bamboo; heavy offences with up to 200 blows; capital punishment is
administered by putting the culprit into a feather bag which is thrown into the sea. They
are not bent on making war to neighboring countries, and in the case of small difficulties
try to settle matters by correspondence; but when important interests are at stake they
will also send out an army. They cast gold and silver coins' without holes, however; on
the pile they cut the words Mi-le-fou, which is a king's name. The people are
forbidden to counterfeit the coin. During the sixth year of Yuan-yu [1091 C.E.] they sent
two embassies, and their king was presented, by imperial order, with 200 pieces of cloth,
pairs of white gold vases, and clothing with gold bound in a girdle.
Ma Tuan-lin, Wen-hsien-t'ung-k'ao, ch. 330 (written late 13th
Century C.E.):
Ta-ts'in [Roman Syria], also called Li-kan [Syria], has been first communicated with
during the later Han dynasty. This country, as being in the west of the western sea
[Persian Gulf], is also called Hai-hsi-kuo [i.e. "western sea
country"]. Its king resides at the city of An-tu [Antioch]. In the palaces they use
crystal in making pillars. From T'iao-chih [Babylonia] west, crossing the sea, you make a
crooked journey, ten thousand li. Its distance from Ch'ang-an [Hsi-an-fu] is
40,000 li. This country is even and upright; human dwellings are scattered over
it like stars. Its territory amounts to a thousand li from east to west and from
north to south. It contains over 400 cities and several tens of small tributary states. In
the west there is the Great Sea [the Mediterranean]. On the west of the sea there is the
royal city of Ali-san [Alexandria]. They have keepers of official records and foreigners
trained in reading their writings. They cut their hair and wear embroidered clothing. They
also have small carriages with white canopies, and hoist flags, etc. Every ten li make one t'ing; thirty li make one hou, the same as in Zhongguo
[China]. The country contains many lions who are a great scourge to travellers; for unless
going in caravans of over a hundred men and being protected by military equipment, they
will be hurt by them. Their king is not a permanent one, but they want to be led by a man
of merit. Whenever an extraordinary calamity or an untimely storm and rain occurs, the
king is deposed and a new one elected, the deposed king resigning cheerfully. The
inhabitants are tall, and upright in their dealings, like the Han [Chinese], whence they
are called Ta-ts'in, or Han.
Amongst precious stones they have the hsieh-chi-hsi [the chicken-frightening
rhinoceros stone]. They mix several fragrant substances and fry their juice in order to
make Su-ho [Storax]. The country produces gold, silver, and rare precious things;
the jewel that shines at night, the moon-shine pearl, amber, opaque glass, tortoises,
white horses, red bristles, tortoise-shell, black bears, red glass, the p'i-tu-shu [a kind of rat], large conches, ch'e-ch'u, carnelian. The Ts'ung [a
quadruped] comes from the western sea [Persian Gulf]; some are domesticated like dogs, but
they are mostly fierce and nasty. In the northern possessions of this country there is a
kind of sheep which grow naturally out of the ground. They wait till the germs are about
to sprout, and then protect them by raising walls lest the beasts at large should eat
them. Their navels are connected with the ground; if the navel is cut by force, the animal
will die; but if by the sound of striking some object they are frightened, this will cause
them to disconnect their navels, and they may be taken off the water-plants; they will not
form flocks. There is further the Mu-nan, a pearl of jade color, originating in
the coagulation of saliva in the mouth of a flying bird; the natives consider it a
precious substance. There are jugglers who can let fires burn on their foreheads; make
rivers and lakes in their hands; raise their feet and let pearls and precious stones drop
from them; and, in opening their mouths produce banners and tufts of feathers in
abundance. With regard to the hsi-pu [fine cloth] manufactured on their looms,
they say they use the wool of water-sheep in making it; it is called hai-chung-pu.
They make all kinds of rugs; their colors are still more brilliant than are those
manufactured in the countries on the east of the sea. They always made profit by obtaining
the thick plain silk stuffs of Zhongguo, which they split in order to make foreign ling
kan wen [damask and purple-dyed mustered goods], and they entertained a lively trade
with the foreign states of Ar-hsi [Arsacids, or Parthia] by sea. About 700 or 800 li south-west in the Chang-hai, you come to the Coral Islands. At the bottom of the water
there are rocks and the corals grow on them.
The inhabitants of Ta-tsin use large sea-going ships having on board nets of iron. They
get a diver first to go down and look for corals; if the nets can be let down, they drop
them. When the corals first appear they are white, and by degrees they resemble sprouts,
and break through. After a year and some time has elapsed they grow through the meshes of
the net and change their color into yellow; they will then throw out branches and
intertwine, having grown to a height of three or four ch'ih [four to five feet],
and the larger ones measuring over a ch'ih [15 inches] in circuit. After three
years, their color has turned into a beautiful carnation red. They are then again looked
after to ascertain whether they can be gathered. The fishers thereupon get at the roots
with iron pinchers and fasten the net with ropes; they let the men on board turn the
vessel round, raise the net and take it out, and return to their country, where the corals
are polished and cut according to fancy. If not fished for at the proper time they are
liable to be worm-bitten.
In this country they make gold and silver coins; ten silver coins are worth one gold
coin. The inhabitants are just in their dealings, and in the trade there are not two
prices. Cereals are always cheap, and the budget is well supplied. When the envoys of
neighboring countries arrive at their furthest frontier they are driven by post to the
royal capital and, on arrival, are presented with golden money. Their king always wished
to send envoys to Zhongguo; but the Ar-hsi wished to carry on trade with them in Han
silks, and this is the cause of their having been shut off from direct communication. It
was, further, hard to cross the great sea, travelling merchants taking three years'
provisions on board to make this passage, whence the number of travellers was but small.
In the beginning of the Yuan-chia period of the emperor Huan-ti [151-153 C.E.], the king
of Ta-ts'in, An-tun [Marcus Aurelius Antoninus], sent envoys who offered ivory,
rhinoceros' horns, and tortoise-shell, from the boundary of Jih-nan [Annam]; this was the
first time they communicated with us. Their tribute contained no precious stones whatever,
which fact makes us suspect that the messengers kept them back. During the Ta-k'ang period
of the emperor Wu-ti of the Chin dynasty [280-290 C.E.] their king sent envoys with
tribute. Some say that in the west of this country there is the Jo-shui [weak water] and
the Liu-sha [flying sands] near the residence of the Hsi-wang-mu [western king's mother]
not far from the place where the sun sets.
The Wai-kuo-t'u ["map of foreign countries"] says: From Yung-ch'en
north there is a country called Ta-ts'in. These people are of great size; they measure
five or six ch'ih [six to seven feet] in height. The Kuei-huan-hsing-ching-chi says: The Fu-lin country is in the west of Shan [Armenia], separated by hills several
thousand li; it is also called Ta-ts'in. Its inhabitants have red and white
faces. Men wear plain clothes, but women wear silk stuffs beset with pearls. They have
many clever weavers of silk. Prisoners are kept in the frontier states till death without
their being brought back to their home. In the manufacture of glass they are not equalled
by any nation of the world. The royal city is eighty li square; the country in
all directions measures several thousand li. Their army consists of about a
million men. They have constantly to provide against the Ta-shih. On the west the country
bounds on the western sea [the Mediterranean]; on the south, on the southern sea [Red
Sea?]; in the north it connects with K'o-sa T'u-ch'ueh [the Khazars]. In the western sea
there is a market where a silent agreement exists between buyer and seller that, if the
one is coming the other will go, and vice-versa; the seller will first spread out his
goods, and the purchaser will afterwards produce their equivalents, which have to wait by
the side of the articles to be sold till received by the seller, after which the purchase
may be taken delivery of. They call this a spirit market.
There is also a report that in the west there is the country of women who, being
affected by the influence of water, give birth to children. It is further said: the
country of Mo-lin [ 'Alwa, or Upper Nubia] is on the south-west of the country of
Yang-sa-lo [Jerusalem?]; crossing the great desert 2,000 li you come to this
country. Its inhabitants are black and of ferocious manners. Cereals are scarce, and there
is no vegetation in the way of shrubs and trees; horses are fed on dried fish; men eat
hu-mang, that is, the Persian date. The country is very malarious. The hill tribes which
one has to pass in pursuing the overland road of these countries, are of the same race. Of
religions there are several kinds: there is the Ta-shih, the Ta-ts'in, and the Hsun-hsun
religion; The Hsun-hsun have most frequent illicit intercourse with barbarians; while
eating they do not speak. Those who belong to the religion of Ta-shih have a rule by which
brothers, children and other relatives may be impeached for crime without implicating
their kin, even if the crime be brought home to them. They do not eat the flesh of pigs,
dogs, donkeys, and horses; they do not prostrate or kneel down before the king, nor before
father or mother, to show their veneration; they do not believe in spirits, and sacrifice
to heaven alone. Every seventh day is a holiday, when they will refrain from trade, and
not go in or out, but drink wine and yield to dissipation till the day is finished. The
Ta-ts'in are good physicians in eye-diseases and diarrhea, whether by looking to matters
before the disease has broken out [i.e., whether by the prophylactic method], or
whether by extracting worms from the brain [trepanning].
In the south-east of this country you go to Chiao-chih [Cochin China]; there is also a
water-road communicating with the I-chou and Yung-ch'ang principalities [both in the
present Yunnan]. Many rare things come from there. It is said that in the west of Ta-ts'in
there is the water of a sea; west of the seawater there is a river; the river flows
south-west; west of the river there are hills extending from south to north; west of the
hills there is the Red Water; west of this is the White Jade Hill; west of the Jade Hill
is the Hill of the Hsi-wang-mu [western king's mother] who lives in a temple built of
jadestone. Coming from the western boundary of Ar-hsi [Parthia], following the crooked
shape of the sea, you also come to Ta-ts'in [at Aelana (modern Elat)], bending round over
10,000 li. Although in that country the sun, the moon, and the constellations
appear not different from what they are in Zhongguo, former historians say that in the
west of T'iao-chih [Babylonia] you go a hundred li to the place where the sun
sets; this is far from being true.
In the 17th year of Cheng-kuan of the T'ang dynasty [643 C.E.] the king of Fu-lin,
Po-to-li [Constans II Pogonatus, Emperor 641-668 C.E.], sent envoys offering red glass and
green gold ching[stones, gems, dust], and a cabinet order was issued as an
acknowledgement. The Ta-shih waged war against the country which in the sequel became
subject to them. Between the periods Ch'ien-feng and Ta-tsu [666-701 C.E.] they repeated
their court offerings. In the seventh year of K'ai-yuan [719 C.E.] they offered through
the ta-yu [a high official] of T'u-huo-lo [Khazarstan] lions and ling-yang[antelopes].
The Dwarfs. These are in the south of Ta-ts'in. They are scarcely three ch'ih [four feet] large. When they work in the fields they are afraid of being devoured by
cranes. Whenever Ta-ts'in has rendered them any assistance, the Dwarfs give them all they
can afford in the way of precious stones to show their gratitude. The Hsuan-ch'u. Their
country contains many "birds of nine colors," with blue pecks, green necks,
red-brown wings, red breasts, purple crests, vermilion feet, jade-colored bodies,
yellowish backs, and blackish tails. Another name of this animal is "bird of nine
tails," or chin-feng [the brocaded phoenix]. Those which have more blue than
red on them are called Hsiu-luan [embroidered argus pheasant]. These birds
usually come from the west of the Jo-shui [weak water]. Some say that it is the bird of
the Hsi-wang-mu [western king's mother]. The coins of the country are the same as those of
the country of San-t'ung. The San-t'ung are a thousand lisouth-west of
Hsuan-ch'u. The inhabitants have three eyes, and sometimes four tongues by means of which
they may produce one kind of sound and speak one language. They trade in plantains, also
in rhinoceros' horns and ivory; they make golden coins on which they imitate the king's,
also the queen's face [with the king's together.]; if the husband is changed, they use the
king's face; if the king dies, they re-melt the coin. The above three countries border on
Ta-ts'in whence they are here appended.
Ala-san [Charax Spasinu] was heard of during the Wei dynasty. It is subject to
Ta-ts'in. Its residence lies right in the middle of a river. North you go to Lu-fen
[Nikephorium] by water half a year, with quick winds a month. It is nearest to Ch'eng-ku
of Ar-hsi [Parthia]. South-west you go to the capital of Ta-ts'in; we do not know how many li. Lu-fen was heard of during the Wei dynasty. It is subject to Ta-ts'in. Its
residence is 2000 li distant from the capital of Ta-ts'in. The flying bridge
across the river [the bridge over the Euphrates at Zeugma] in Ta-ts'in west of the city of
Lu-fen is 240 li in length. The road, if you cross the river, goes to the
south-west; if you make a round on the river, you go due west.
Fu-lin. In the south and east of the country of Fu-lin you go to Mei-lu-ku [Kilikia
("Cilicia")]; north you go to the sea, forty days' journey; west you go to the
sea, thirty days' journey. In the east, starting from western Ta-shih you come to Yu-tien
[Khoten], Hui-ho, Ta-ta [Tartary], and Ch'ing-t'ang, and finally reach Zhongguo [China].
They have during former dynasties not sent tribute to our court. During the tenth month of
the fourth year of the period Yuan-feng [November 1081 C.E.] their king
Mieh-li-i-ling-kai-sa [Michael Caesar] first sent the ta-shou-ling [a high
official] Ni-si-tu-ling-si-meng-p'an to offer as tribute saddled horses, sword-blades and
real pearls. He said: the climate of this country is very cold; houses there have no
tiles; the products are gold, silver, pearls, western silk cloth, cows, sheep, horses,
camels with single humps, pears, almonds, dates, pa-lan, millet, and wheat. They
make wine from grapes. Their musical instruments are the lute, the hu-ch'in, the hsiao-pi-li,
and the p'ien-ku. The king dresses in red and yellow robes, and wears a turban of
silken cloth interwoven with gold thread. In the third month every year he goes to the
Temple of Fou, to sit on a red palanquin which he gets the people to lift. His honored
servants [ministers, courtiers, priests?] are dressed like the king, but wear blue, green,
purple, white mottled, red, yellow, or brown stuff; wear turbans and ride on horseback.
The towns and the country districts are each under the jurisdiction of a shou-ling [chief, sheik?]. Twice a year during the summer and autumn they must offer money and
cloth. In their criminal decisions they distinguish between great and small offences.
Light offences are punished by several hundreds' of blows with the bamboo; heavy offences
with up to 200 blows; capital punishment is administered by putting the culprit into a
feather bag which is thrown into the sea. They are not bent on making war to neighboring
countries, and in the case of small difficulties try to settle matters by correspondence;
but when important interests are at stake they will also send out an army. They cast gold
and silver coins, without holes, however; on the pile they cut the words Mi-le-fou which is a king's name; the people are forbidden to counterfeit the coin.
During the sixth year of Yuan-yu [1091 C.E.] they sent two embassies, and their king
was presented, by Imperial order, with 200 pieces of cloth, pairs of silver vases, and
clothing with gold bound in a girdle. According to the historians of the T'ang dynasty,
the country of Fu-lin was held to be identical with the ancient Ta-ts'in. It should be
remarked, however, that, although Ta-ts'in has from the Later Han dynasty when Zhongguo
was first communicated with, till down to the Chin and T'ang dynasties has offered tribute
without interruption, yet the historians of the "four reigns" of the Sung
dynasty, in their notices of Fu-lin, hold that this country has not sent tribute to court
up to the time of Yuan-feng [1078-1086 C.E.] when they sent their first embassy offering
local produce. If we, now, hold together the two accounts of Fu-lin as transmitted by the
two different historians, we find that, in the account of the T'ang dynasty, this country
is said "to border on the great sea in the west"; whereas the Sung account says
that "in the west you have still thirty days' journey to the sea;" and the
remaining boundaries do also not tally in the two accounts; nor do the products and the
customs of the people. I suspect that we have before us merely an accidental similarity of
the name, and that the country is indeed not identical with Ta-ts'in. I have, for this
reason, appended the Fu-lin account of the T'ang dynasty to my chapter on Ta-ts'in, and
represented this Fu-lin of the Sung dynasty as a separate country altogether.
Chao Ju-kua, Chu-fan-chih (written late 13th Century C.E.):
The country of Ta-ts'in [Roman Syria], also called Li-kan [Syria], is the general
meeting-ground for the nations of the western heaven, and the place where the foreign
merchants of Ta-shih [the Arabs of the Caliphate] assemble. Their king is styled Mie-lu-ku.
He rules at the city of An-tu [Antioch]. He wears a turban of silk with gold-embroidered
characters, and the throne he sits upon is covered with a silken rug. They have walled
cities and markets with streets and lanes. In the king's dwelling they use crystal in
making pillars; and they use plaster in lieu of tiles. They frequently erect tabernacles
with seven entrances all round, each holding a garrison of thirty men. Tribute-bearers
from other countries pay their respects below the platform of the palace steps, whence
they withdraw on having offered their congratulations. The inhabitants are tall and of
bright complexion, somewhat like the Han [Chinese], which has been the cause of their
being called Ta-ts'in. They have keepers of official records and foreign interpreters
knowing their style of writing. They trim their hair and wear embroidered dresses. They
also have small carriages with white canopies, and flags, etc.; and at the distance of
every ten li there is a t'ing, and at the distance of every thirty li there is a hou. There are in the country many lions who will attack travellers
and may devour them unless they go in caravans of a hundred men and be protected by
military equipment. Underneath the palace they have cut into the ground a tunnel
communicating with the hall of worship at a distance of over a li. The king
rarely goes out; but, to chant the liturgy and worship, on every seventh day he proceeds
by way of this tunnel to the hall of worship where, in performing divine service, he is
attended by a suite of over fifty men. But few amongst the people know the king's face; if
he goes out he sits on horseback, protected by an umbrella; the head of his horse is
adorned with gold, jade, pearls and other jewels. Every year the king of the country of
Ta-shih who is styled Su-tan [Sultan] sends tribute-bearers, and if in the
country some trouble is apprehended, he gets the Ta-shih to use their military force in
restoring order. Their food mainly consists in cooked dishes, cakes and meat; they do not
drink wine; but they use vessels made of gold and silver, and help themselves to their
contents by means of ladles; after meals they wash hands in a golden bowl filled with
water. The products of the country consist in opaque glass, corals, raw gold, brocades,
sarcenets, red carnelian stones and real pearls; also the hsieh-chi-hsi, which is
the same as the T'ung-t'ien-hsi. At the beginning of the Yen-hsi period [158-167
C.E.] the ruler of this country sent an embassy who, from outside the frontier of Jih-nan
[Annam], came to offer rhinoceros' horns, ivory and tortoise-shell, this being the first
direct communication with Zhongguo. As their presents contained no other precious matters
and curiosities, it may be suspected that the ambassadors kept them back. During the
T'ai-k'ang period of the Chin dynasty [280-289 C.E.] further tribute was brought from
there [at the time of Diocletian]. There is a saying that in the west of this country
there is the Jo-shui [weak water] and the Liu-sha [flying sands] near the place where the
Hsi-wang-mu [western king's mother] resides, and where the sun sets.
The Tu-huan-ching-hsing-chi says: The country of Fu-lin is in the west of the
Shan [Armenia] country; it is also called Ta-ts'in. The inhabitants have red and white
faces. Men wear plain clothes, but women wear silk stuffs beset with pearls. They are fond
of wine and dry cakes. They have many clever weavers of silk. The size of the country is a
thousand li. Their army consists of over 10,000 men and has to ward off the
Ta-shih. In the western sea there is a market where a silent agreement exists between
buyer and seller that, if the one is coming the other will go, and vice-versa, the seller
will first spread out his goods, and the purchaser will afterwards produce their
equivalents, which have to wait by the side of the articles to be sold till received by
the seller, after which the purchase may be taken delivery of. They call this a spirit
market.
From the Ming-shih, ch. 326 (concluded 1724 C.E.), for 1368-1643
C.E.:
u-lin [Byzantium] is the same as Ta-ts'in [Roman Syria] of the Han period. It first
communicated with Zhongguo [China] at the time of the emperor Huan-ti [147-168 C.E.].
During the Chin and Wei dynasties it was also called Ta-ts'in, and tribute was sent to
Zhongguo. During the T'ang dynasty it was called Fu-lin. During the Sung it was still so
called, and they sent also tribute several times; yet the Sung-shih says that during
former dynasties they have sent no tribute to our court, which throws doubt on its
identity with Ta-ts'in. At the close of the Yuan dynasty [1278-1368 C.E.] a native of this
country, named Nieh-ku-lun, came to Zhongguo for trading purposes [Pope John XXII
appointed Nicolaus de Bentra to succeed John de Monte Corvino as Archbishop of Cambalu,
that is, Peking, in the year 1333; and also sent letters to the emperor of the Tartars,
who was then the sovereign of China." Mosheim, Ecclesiastical History,trans. James
Murdock, Vol. II, p. 359; cf. Remusat, Nouv. Mel. Asiat., Vol. II, p. 198. Bretschneider,
Arabs, etc., p. 25, says: "It is possible that the Nie-ku-lun of the Chinese Annals
is identical with the Monk Nicolas. The statement of the Chinese that Nicolas carried on
commerce does not contradict this view. Perhaps he trafficked in fact, or he considered it
necessary to introduce himself under the name of a merchant."]. When, after the
fall of the Yuan, he was not able to return, the emperor T'ai-tsu, who had heard of this,
commanded him to his presence in the eighth month of the fourth year of Hung-wu [September
1371 C.E.] and gave orders that an official letter be placed into his hands for
transmission to his king, which read as follows: "Since the Sung dynasty had lost the
throne and Heaven had cut off their sacrifice, the Yuan [Mongol] dynasty had
risen from the desert to enter and rule over Zhongguo for more than a hundred years, when
Heaven, wearied of their misgovernment and debauchery, thought also fit to turn their fate
to ruin, and the affairs of Zhongguo were in a state of disorder for eighteen years. But
when the nation began to arouse itself, We, as a simple peasant of Huai-yu, conceived the
patriotic idea to save the people, and it pleased the Creator to grant that Our civil and
military officers effected their passage across eastward to the left side of the River. We
have then been engaged in war for fourteen years; We have, in the west, subdued the king
of Han, Ch'en Yu-liang; We have, in the east, bound the king of Wu, Chang Shih-ch'eng; We
have, in the south, subdued Min and Yueh [Fukien and Kuang-tung], and conquered Pa and Shu
[Sze-chuan]; We have, in the north, established order in Yu and Yen [Chih-li]; We have
established peace in the Empire, and restored the old boundaries of Zhongguo. We were
selected by Our people to occupy the Imperial throne of Zhongguo under the dynastic title
of 'the Great Ming,' commencing with Our reign styled Hung-wu, of which we now are in the
fourth year. We have sent officers to all the foreign kingdoms with this Manifesto except
to you, Fu-lin, who, being separated from us by the western sea, have not as yet received
the announcement. We now send a native of your country, Nieh-ku-lun, to hand you this
Manifesto. Although We are not equal in wisdom to our ancient rulers whose virtue was
recognized all over the universe, We cannot but let the world know Our intention to
maintain peace within the four seas. It is on this ground alone that We have issued this
Manifesto." And he again ordered the ambassador Pu-la and others to be provided with
credentials and presents of silk for transmission to that country, who thereafter sent an
embassy with tribute. But this embassy was, in the sequel, not repeated until during the
Wan-li period [1573-1620 C.E.] a native from the great western ocean [Fra. Matteo
Ricci--mentioned in a subsequent account of Italy as the foreigner who arrived] came to
the capital who said that the Lord of Heaven, Ye-su, was born in Ju-te-a [Judea] which is
identical with the old country of Ta-ts'in; that this country is known in the historical
books to have existed since the creation of the world for the last 6,000 years; that it is
beyond dispute the sacred ground of history and the origin of all wordly affairs; that it
should be considered as the country where the Lord of Heaven created the human race. This
account looks somewhat exaggerated and should not be trusted. As regards the abundance of
produce and other precious articles found in this country, accounts will be found in
former annals.
